Early Civilization Essay

History records the rise and fall of different civilizations of various countries. It has been found that in different times, different civilizations reach the pinnacle of glory. But, due to various reasons, like ecological change, climatic disaster, natural calamities, foreign conquest, epidemic disease, fall-short of population etc. have brought about their decay. The following examples clearly show how, after the zenith of civilization, the downfall may come about. Indus Valley Civilization The explorer’s spade has unearthed the most fascinating remains of the extremely rich and flourishing civilization of the Indus valley. The long span of the Indus Valley civilization and its firmly – settled character lead to the perplexing question – what was the cause of its destruction? At the present state of our knowledge and till the Indus script is deciphered we are not in a position to know the actual reasons of the end of this great civilization. However, on the basis of the available data, some attempts may be made to find out the causes of the decay of this civilization. First of all, there are dependable evidences to prove that rainfall in Indus valley was somewhat ample and equable in the third millennium B. C. The Indus valley had a larger rainfall than what we see today and that the land was swampy and full of jungles as known from the figure of animals like rhinoceros, elephants engraved on the seals. In course of time, the volume of rainfall gradually decreased. With the loss of rainfall, land became arid and dry. The aridity of the land led to deterioration of the civilization. The underground salt was dragged to the surface by evaporation of moisture. The progressive drying-up of the land led to desert-condition. This is proved from the story of Alexander’s invasion in the 4rth C. B. C. when Alexander the Great was marching through the cheerless wastes of Makran, the desert condition of the area was far in advance (Thaper 55). Under the teeth of this inhospitable climate, the Indus civilization started to decay long before the foreigners invaded the towns. Secondly, the growing danger of flood might had been responsible for the evacuation of Mohenjodaro. With the gradual silting up of the bed of the Indus, the water-level rose high, specially in the rainy season. This led, sometimes, to flooding of the city. At least on three occasions devastating floods swept over the city. It is found from excavation that an embankment 43ft. wide had to be rebuilt 14ft. higher up in order to protect the Mohenjodaro Citadel from the encroaching water-level of the river. Houses were built up on piled-up debrieses or on raised foundations in order to avert the danger of flood. The extensive use of the burnt-brick instead of sun-dried ones at Mohenjodaro equally testfies the danger of flood. Thirdly, human negligence was a contributory factor to the desiccation of Iands. Excessive flood of the Indus towns induced to burn bricks wood was used extensively as a fuel. The excessive deforestation caused by the felling of trees in order to burn bricks led to decline in the rainfall. It is a cardinal truth that lack of trees and forests decrease the rate of rainfall. The decline in rainfall dried up the crust of the earth and underground salinity came to the surface. Gradually deserts expanded and, resultantly, agriculture and human habitations were destroyed. The later phases of the civilization at Mohenjodaro presents a sad picture of this neglect and barrenness of the Indus civilization. In upper layers at Mohenjodaro, the dams meant to reserve the flood-water were not properly maintained. The agricultural standard also deteriorated. Fourthly, many scholars have pointed out that the Harrappans had a very iron-bound, conservative outlook about everything. They refused to learn from others any new thing or system. The civilization was cramped by its inherent barrenness and incapability to adjust itself to changing time and environment. With the march of time, the civilization lost its vitality and original creativity. It failed to survive in the midst of changing environment and changing society. Some scholars emphasize this negative aspect of Harrappan civilization as the fundamental cause of its decay and, in their view, all other causes were merely contributory. An inertia grew out of this conservatism which ruined the vitality of the civilization. This reflects the negligience of the Harappans to repair the dams. At Mohenjodaro among the seven layers, the upper layers of later period, we find growing slums, houses being created upon ruins of old houses, rooms being pertitioned into small cells for swarming lower grade population. Houses were encroaching upon the streets; lanes were chocked with klins. Old bricks were used for building new houses. Thus, there are reasons to believe that the internal decline and decay in the Harappan towns had set in long before the foreign invasion which completely swept away the Harappan culture. The internal decay started from the stagnation and barrenness of Hardpan culture and its failure to adjust with changing circumstances. With the internal decay was added natural calamities like floods, decrease in rainfalls and so on. According to some scholars, the city of Mohenjo-Daro was situated within a terrible earthquake-belt which might have frequently devastated the city. Again the earthquake theory has been challenged by others on the ground that if the people at Mohenjo-Daro could build their city upon seven layers, why they failed to built another layer upon the city destroyed by the earthquake? Moreover the earthquake theory is not applicable to all the towns of Harappa-culture (Nath 670). In any case, internal decline started from many reasons and the towns began to decay. This decline and incapability to adjust with the changing circumstances is evident in the failure of the Harappa people to learn from Samaria the art of cutting canals to irrigate the fields. This incapability led to the destruction of dams or reservoirs. This is how Mohenjo-Daro lost its importance when the Indus shifted its course. â€Å"The glorious culture was practically ruined in 1900 B. C. , long before the invasion of the Aryans† (Majumder 201). Fifthly, whatever may be the domestic potential for the gradual decline of the Indus civilization, its ultimate extinction was most certainty due to invasion from without by a people who were probably the Aryans. The tragic end of the Indus civilization came about 1500 B. C. , the time the when the Aryans entered into the land of the seven Rivers. It is said that, the Aryans destroyed some metal forts and seasonal forts. Similar forts or citadel have been found at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and other places. Hence, it is reasonable to infer that the Aryans were the destroyers of the Indus civilization. Certain circumstantial evidences are also available to justify the theory of Aryan invasion. Excavation have reveled that in the last stage of Mohenjo-Daro civilization, people were massacred in streets, houses and public places. Some of the victims were even women and children. Head and skull injuries found in the skeletons point to the use of sharp and heavy weapons by the invaders. The dead bodies were left uncared and exposed. (Paul 126) According to some historians, the downfall of the Indus Valley civilization came up due to some natural disasters like earthquake or flood. But most historians believed that the fall was actually caused by the Aryan invasion and the consequent cultural conquest. Fall of Roman Empire The city of Rome, founded in 753 B. C. was originally the most important commercial center situated on the Tiber, very near to place where it flows into the Mediterranean. But subsequently Rome grew into a political power and expanded the empire over a large part of Europe, the Tigris and Euphrates valleys in Asia Minor, and the northern coasts of Africa. In 330 A. D. , Emperor Constantine founded a second capital at Byzantium on the Black Sea, which came to be known as Constantinople after the name of its founder. Virtually, the vast Roman Empire was divided into two parts – Western and Eastern. In fifth century A. D. (476) the West Roman Empire was broken up by the invading barbarians but the Eastern Empire, also called the Byzantine Empire with Constantinople as its capital continued to exist about a thousand years more (1453). In the view of Prof. Henry Perrine the fall of the Roman Empire has caused a stir among the historians. According to the view of Penne the Roman Empire was essentially confined to the Mediterranean by the end of the 3rd century B. C. in fact the Roman Empire had to depend on the Mediterranean commerce for its political and economic interests. Perrine has put emphasis on the issue that the repeated German tribal invasions in the 5th century B. C. on the Western Roman Empire while converting them into German provinces could not destroy the unity of the Empire. The provinces of the Roman Empire were not Germanized. He is of the opinion that it is also a mistake to suppose that the intermittent German tribal invasions lead to the introduction of agrarian economy in the occupied zone of the Roman Empire. The Frankish system was, in fact, Romano-Byzantine. It is obvious that Perrine did not attach much importance to German invasions of the Roman Empire. His comment on the expansion of the Islam on the Mediterranean is more important as it produced far-reaching consequences. According to him, the Islamic invasion of the 7th century A. D. is something unique. The occupation of Syria, Tunisia and Spain by the Moslem invaders destroyed the Mediterranean unity and caused the final separation between the East and West. In this way two opponent civilizations came face to face with each other by the middle of the 7th century and this confrontation led to the inauguration of the middle ages in Europe. As it has been aptly pointed out, the Mediterranean, once a Roman Lake, henceforth was converted into a Muslim Lake. Secondly, in the view of R. H. C. Davis, when the Byzantine and Islamic empires were flourishing, the economy of the Latin West was stagnant. Davis has pointed out that Perrine has come to his conclusions from a consideration of the economy of the ancient world. The economy of the ancient world was dependent on the commercial navigation in the Mediterranean. Perrine is of opinion that so long this commercial navigation remained unmolested by the pirates, there was a regular flow of commerce and the population of Rome could be fed on African corn. If this normal commercial activity was disrupted then there would have been a total dislocation in this region. Davis has anticipated, following Perrine, the possible disturbing factors in the event of the inevitable decline of commerce in the Mediterranean. According to him, with the decline of commerce, the towns and cities face the same fate. The flourishing life of municipal towns became the matter of past. Naturally, the population gradually decreased. The agricultural wealth locked up within the country as there was no other outlet. The greater landlords built up their own workshops for making tools or weaving cloth and they paid their workers in kind. This possible state-affair has been described by Perrine as the ‘economy of no outlets’. According to Perrine, this character of the economy was vividly seen during the eighth and ninth centuries and this is attributed to the feudal society. The land was the only source of wealth. According to him feudalism was the outcome of this ‘economy of no outlets’ and Charlemagne was a child of it. It is the opinion of Perrine that free navigation of the Mediterranean might have been suspended but the more important problem is to determine the actual time of this suspension. He therefore, has tried to find out evidence of the use of such goods in the Frankish Kingdom as could be produced in eastern or southern shores of the Mediterranean. Although his findings have been disputed, yet these goods included gold, olive oil, (from North Africa), oriental silk, papyrus (from Egypt) and spices. According to him, these goods were very much in use in Gaul upto the last quarter of the 7th century and they all disappeared from the market by the first quarter of the eight century. Thirdly, the invasion of the Muslims is an important factor in disrupting the Mediterranean navigation. But at the beginning of the 8th century A. D. the Muslim captured Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia and Spain. The occupation of Tunisia was the most vital as later had a position of particular strategic importance. After its occupation the Muslims could disrupt the communications between the eastern and western halves of the Mediterranean. Trade also continued in Byzantium, but Pisa, Genoa and other ports of provinces were neglected. Perrine pointed out, that for its reason a great vacuum was created in the port of Marseilles. This eventually led to the decline of the cities of the southern Gaul and the â€Å"economy of no outlets† was imposed by the Muslims on the Latin West. Fourthly, in the ninth and tenth centuries the most important trading centers were secured. Thus instead of Milan, Florence, Pisa, towns like Pavia, Amalfi, Reims and Verdun flourished as they were relatively secured and farther from the coast. Venice was an exception and trade was at its low ebb in the Latin West during the ninth and tenth centuries. Fifthly, the religious intolerance also played its part. The spread of Christianity was another important factor contributing towards the fall of Rome. Rome had been known to be a nation of religious tolerance. But some Romans, mainly the Jews, did not accept Christianity. Naturally, there was a conflict between these two communities. Sixthly, although Jesus was crucified for his efforts to spread peace, the Romans were truly inspired by his words. Soon, the number of Roman involvement in the military and the participation in the community gradually declined. Resultantly, the Roman army was not increasing in numbers. At this juncture, the Barbarians of Germany, who formed an integral part of the Roman army, revolted against Rome and led disorganized attacks on several parts of Rome and even on the Roman army itself. Gradually, the Roman army became weakened and it was no longer a military super power in the world. Thus, it is crystal clear that the downfall of any civilization was never caused due to any single factor. Several factors accumulated and contributed together to the decay of these civilizations. Hence, it is amply clear that no civilization is permanent and ever lasting. As it rises at a particular time, similarly, it comes to an end at another historical juncture. Reference Majumder, R. C. Indus Civilization, The Vedic Age, Dakshinamurty Prakashan, Calcutta, p. 201-203 Nath, P. The Scripts on the Indus Seal, Modern Publications, New Delhi, p. 670-74 Paul, C. Causes of the Downfall, A History of Rome, Dey Publishers, New Delhi, p. 121-26 Sethy, S. Perrine Thesis, The Fall of Rome, World Press Pvt. Ltd. , Calcutta, 1981, p. 126-34 Thaper, R. History of India, vol. 1, ed. 3, 1987, p. 55-68 Wells, H. G. Wells, Barbarians Break Empire into East and West, A Short History of the World, Penguin Books, London, 1965, p. 152-61

Innovation In Organizations That Stems From `The Concept Of `National Systems Of Innovation`

The vicissitude in human wants and the desires to progress in ways of conducting their activities has brought about the need to embrace constantly means to bring about innovation in technology and pattern of operating a business concern. The concept on National System of Innovation (NSI) has to do with a collaborative effort between organizations in the public sector and their counterpart in private sector to form a network in bringing initiatives that would culminate into innovative technologies.According to Freeman (1987), who first used the concept in published form, he defined National System of Innovation as â€Å"†¦the network of institutions in the public and private sectors whose activities and interactions initiate, import, and diffuse new technologies†. NSI, thus includes those political, social, economical, cultural, organizational and institutional factors that promotes innovation and its utilization (Edquist, 1997: 14, cited in Edquist 2003: 4).For National S ystem of Innovation, theories have being amply utilized in bringing about innovation creativity as pertaining to national dimension. Theories are abstractions from the real world to give and show the existing relationship between or among a variables or a given phenomenon. Thus, they are as map used in showing the direction of the known from the unknown. In social sciences, scholars had propounded diverse theories in explaining different social different situations. However, other methodologies had being utilized for NSI, other than theoretical approach.These include empirical case studies approach, while other focus more on research and development system (Edquist 2003). Outside the National System Innovation, there are other genres of innovation development pertaining to sub political geographical sector, example the Regional System Innovation, and Local System Innovation. System Innovative concept could be categorized into product innovations and process innovations. Product inno vations embrace new or better product or services, both in material form and intangibles.While, process innovation entails new ways of producing goods and services. Both system innovation concepts maybe technological or organizational based. Giving an illustration on the usefulness of National System Innovation Freeman (1987), explains that Japanese industry and innovative performance, during its post war era is linked on the competence of its national system to direct resources to innovation and investment in new strategic activities. Lundvall (1998) used three central points to distinguished economics of innovation with the neoclassical mainstream economies.Firstly, economic of innovation focus more on change, while the neo classical economics is mostly central focused. Secondly, the neo-classical economies have general validated theory; while economics of innovation is an open approach that has united theory. Thirdly, agents of change with diversity of variables are central to ne oclassical economies, while economics of innovation evolutionary mechanisms are fundamental.This write-up will be specific in analyzing a segment of National System Innovation that pertains to economy geography, i. . industry agglomeration. BACKGROUND TO AGGLOMERATION OR SPATIAL CLUSTERING THEORY Agglomeration as a concept entails the clustering of people or the concentration of economic activities in an area. This concept according to Malmberg & Peter (2001:3) has two angles to it. Firstly, the spatial concentration of people in an urbanized area brings about gains from urbanization economies. â€Å"Agglomeration economies in this sense accrue from the geographical propinquity of industries and services in general† (Maskell 2001:2).Secondly, the advantages ascribed to localization of industries (Industry agglomeration) is numerous in terms of having adequate labour skill, reduced raw material sourcing, technology and infrastructure improvement, having access to subsidiary fi rms services, competitive advantage inter-alia. Firms agglomeration goes a long way to improve the profitability of firms by reducing their costs of exchange of both goods and information (Appold 1995, cited in Malmberg & Maskell 2001:9)Maskell (2001:3) explains that locational economies embrace those economies that arise from the geographical agglomeration of related economic activities. Thus, spatial clustering has to do with the concentration of similar firms in the same industry in a locality. This is what the agglomeration theory or clustering theory entails; that is, it is based on classical issues pertaining economy geography. Literatures on clustering theory have two source of knowledge.This based on ideographic work that has to do with historical origin, and the other is on the development of different typologies of localized clusters that gives advantage to localized firm in form of cost reduction. The ideographic historical approach tries to capture the historical origin and trace the evolution of localized clusters. According to Malmberg & Maskell (2001:4), the knowledge base of ideographic historical approach originate from the event or action which prompted succeeding developments, which sometimes turns out to be related to some more or less traditional factor of location.The activity leading to localization of firms comes from the development in a geographical location, which results in successful economic activity that is accomplished by related subsidiary or supplementary services from similar firms. Furthermore, another reason for the development of clustering is adduced to the fact that firms tend to maintain their location, especially when they are deeply rooted in such areas. This prevents their relocation. According to Ross (1896), cited in Malmberg & Maskell (2001:5), â€Å"The power of a locality to hold an industry greatly exceeds its original power to attract.The new locality must not only excel the old, but it must excel it by margi n enough to more than offset the resisting power of the matrix†. The cost reduction approach gives an explanation to those identified static advantages that is accrued to firms located in close juxtaposition to similar and related firms. This is analysed and weighed in line with the state of firm in isolated location. Geographical space and localization of industry has in the past being amply researched.Scholars noting the role of localization of industry in the effective operation have approached the study of spatial clustering from different dimensions, which include general organizational strategic approach, production process in firms, or analyzing industrial agglomeration from the role of local firm in the globalizing world economy. In innovating new concept or cluster theory, some principles need to be followed. This will go a long way to validate the theory. According to Maskell (2002:14), first such theory should at least have explanation for the existence of the clust er.Secondly, the cluster theory must include an explanation for the growth of the cluster. Thirdly, such theory should be validated on its ability to identify the boundaries of the cluster by identifying the rationale behind clustering of some economies activities against the integration of other economies. The importance of clustering has being linked up to high tech industry and to knowledge based industries. The need for development of innovation in the agglomeration theory is the vast uncoordinated and unified theories by early classical scholars on this field. A KNOWLEDGE-BASED THEORY SPATIAL CLUSTERINGMalmberg Anders and Maskell Peter (2001) developed a theoretical approach in analyzing industry agglomeration, otherwise referred to as spatial clustering. The development of innovative in spatial clustering for these scholars came against the background of their criticisms against the lack of unified theoretical structure adequate in analyzing spatial clustering. Besides these, numerous theoretical concepts on spatial clustering have a sharp contrast with the general lack of work aiming to validate empirical mechanism for spatial clustering, as found in work of scholars on this concept.As a way to find a solution to the lack of unified theoretical structure for industry agglomeration, the innovative work of Malmberg and Maskell (2001) â€Å"investigates the nature of cluster from a knowledge creation or learning perspective†. In this regard, they argue that there should be a need to put in place specific theory of cluster through learning as the major focus. Thus, two significant component of this knowledge-based spatial clustering is that there must be an explanation for the existence of the clustering, and an explanation of the internal organization’s structure.The knowledge-based theory on agglomeration arises from the relations that exist between firms in a cluster setting, in such case this relationship stimulates and encourages the exch anges of information and knowledge. The competition among firms in the same industry tends to prompt the processes that create changes and flexibility, which results in organization learning, and the strategizing to bring about innovation in operations of the firms. This invariably leads to the adoption of new technology resulting from changes in business operations.According to Alvsatm (1998), cited in Malmberg and Maskell (2001) the impact of spatial clustering on the learning and innovation prowess of firms and economic geography have in contemporary times pose a useful way to harness the interactions between scholars of social science in their study of firm competitiveness their learning process and innovation. The difference of the knowledge-based cluster theory, from other from of agglomeration theory, is in its position on the vintage point of upholding the long-term competitiveness among firms.This is determined by the theory ability to capture innovation and engages its pro cesses in continuous learning. Other previous agglomeration theories have taken the part of historical exploration and others the advantages in localization of firms. Spatial closeness of firms have being seem to encourage and make it easy for knowledge spread out and interaction which form the basis for innovation and learning. This creates a context that makes enable analyses for spatial clustering.The criticism on other clustering theory is the difficulties they have in attempting to identify explicitly, empirically and theoretically, the localization economies that account for the existence of clustering. â€Å"†¦they do not contain any theory specifying how the territorial configuration of many co-localized firms in related industries would be able to create knowledge in ways not equally available† (ibid). The development of innovation through clustering theory is argued against in its inability to commence its analyses through identifying how knowledge is shares an d how technology is transferred to encourage firms’ competitiveness.Another shortcoming of cluster theory is in its lack of systematic effort to examine empirically the actual mechanisms outlining the enormity of localization economies. Past efforts have based their empirical study on case study. The problem here is intensified by the fact that biased selections of case study are conducted, which is based on high tech industries and on regional successes of clustering of firms. Furthermore, the elusive nature of former theory on the concept of localization of firms gives the knowledge-base theory a plausible stand.The innovation in knowledge-base spatial cluster theory, as purported by Malmberg and Maskell (2001) is to make the theory more satisfactory in brining better explanation to spatial clustering than previous theories. As Maskell (2001b), argued a reasonable theory of spatial clustering must include a clarification for the presence of the cluster. In this case, it sho uld specify the processes that prompt similar firms to cluster in a particular area. A theory must contain explanation for the internal organization of cluster.Furthermore, an explanation should be given for those advantages that are accrued to firms concentrating as cluster in a particular location. Finally, the theory should be dynamic in such a way that it encompasses the eventually rationale for decline in the success of clusters. The knowledge-based spatial cluster theory for it implementation to be useful dispersed knowledge need to be gathered and reassembled for learning among the clustered firms.This should be subject to prior to the period before knowledge-bases of firms has grown enough outside the interaction to implement learning, and the ceiling period when cognitive distance becomes very large for firm to collapse together. â€Å"The innovative capabilities of firms are enhanced because co-location can provide them with an arsenal of instruments to obtain and underst and even the most subtle, elusive and complex information of possible relevance developed because they were separate firms pursuing their individual agenda† (ibid).The point of departure of knowledge-based agglomeration theory from the other theories is that other theories focus primarily on the formal institutional structure, cultural and linguistic aspects of firms in a cluster setting. The knowledge-base theory focuses on the business transactions between related firms, and through this, accurate analyses based on information from these transactions are generated.The reliance on ordinary analyses based on institutional structure such as cultural and linguistics aspects of firms’ concentration this will be good for a local innovative system learning process. However, the exchange of information and ideas associated with the frequent contact and learning derived from business transactions will be a right basis for creating new ideas and innovation. The thrust of the kn owledge-base agglomeration theory argument is that spatial clustering should play down on cost efficiencies in favour of concentrating on ways in which clustering enhances knowledge creation.This is a departure from the research argument on spatial clustering, where it highlights the implication of propinquity and distance, institutional structure and local setting on economic processes. RELATIVE SIGNIFICANT OF KNOWLEDGE-BASED AGGLOMERATION THEORY TO SPATIAL CLUSTERING FIELD The knowledge-based theory is widely adopted in recent research on spatial clustering and economic geography on agglomeration. According to Dahl (2001), the conception of knowledge has strong impact on the connection between innovation and geography.This is because of the social interaction that is germane in knowledge dissemination that is important knowledge in innovation process. Firm’s agglomeration is thus, link to their quest to access tacit knowledge in specific areas. Knowledge creation process ca n be accessed through planned resource generating institutions, such as education system, universities, public research centres, and research and development department in firms. Secondly, knowledge is generated through firm learning processes in firms. Learning forms an important feature in innovation process.This attribute the significance the knowledge-base theory is in National System Innovation, as pertaining deriving the economic benefit of firm’s agglomeration. â€Å"A significant amount of innovation and improvements rely on individual learning process or learning by using processes from firms† (ibid). The difficulty associated with transferring knowledge from a firm to another, requires face-to-face interactions for knowledge transfer to be effective. This is a reason why firm concentrate and cluster in an area for exchanges and knowledge gaining.Thus, this result in clustering firms who are in competitions and their suppliers in a location. Getting informatio n on ways an organization rivals operate tends to give the organization the means to formulate strategy to make it compete favourably in the industry it operates. Firms that are located somewhere else may be tempted into relocating to another area where it perceive it has the advantage of getting better access to local based knowledge or supply or customers (Maskell & Kebir 2001).Knowledge based theory in clustering is also significant in the sense that it promotes national growth through research and development utilized for planning in information derived from firms operations within a clustered location. Technology- based firms locating in geographic proximity have utilized the advantage in localization to higher educational institution to benefit from technology transfer and spill over which culminate in economic growth for the region (Audrestsch 1998 et al, cited in Biron & Malone 2007).Knowledge spillover is a part of firm agglomeration that makes the phenomenon beneficial in the exchange of knowledge. Efficiency of firm in a clustered relationship has being linked to knowledge spill over. The growth of firms in an agglomerated setting leads to backward and forward linkages as advantages derived from the consolidated workforce with specified skills and knowledge spillovers (Athreye, 2000). The knowledge spillovers may come in form of sharing of information on new technologies in informal meetings among staffers of different organizations in the same locality.Thus, the knowledge-base cluster theory has significantly given explanation to the existence of cluster, its extension, and exhaustive argument on firms’ agglomeration. CONCLUSION National System Innovation is a process of developing innovative pattern of operating in a state. There are regional and local versions of system innovation. Looking at the agglomeration theory, it is perceived as a theory that goes to show how clustering of firms tends to bring about economic development and interna l development for the firms.However, the uncoordinated and ineffective way of explanation the existence, extension and arguments on the concept lead to the innovation of another method of analysing agglomeration of firms. The previous economic innovations and the historical and cultural trace of analysing spatial cluster in firm has being criticised based on the aforementioned criticisms ambiguities, unifies theoretical structure. The knowledge-base theory, as an innovation in the traditional and classical method tends to give explicit explanation to clustering through the exchanges of information among firms in a clustered stetting.This comes in the study of business transactions among firms that result in knowledge spill out. This knowledge spillouts usually does not only take place in formal meetings but through informal interactions among workers of different firms in the same locality. Knowledge-base cluster theory tends to show how firms in a cluster environment operate and co mpete through learning processes derived from the agglomerated existence.

Economical and Biological Importance of Rice Research Paper

Economical and Biological Importance of Rice - Research Paper Example Rice is found in different varieties, with each variety responding to certain species of weather and climate. In essence, rice has often been used by different civilizations to determine their degree of cultural influence over others. In the course of history, some communities have used Rice as a means of exchange by trading it with other material goods and services with other communities (Rost, 1997). For instance, the long-distance traders in West Africa and Central Africa relied on rice as a means of exchange during the Trans-Saharan trade. In terms of nutrition, rice is a carbohydrate that nourishes the energy requirement of humans at all ages. Its consumption varies in terms of accompaniments just as the cooking methods vary across communities and individuals. Modern agricultural systems have engaged in value addition practices meant to increase the nutritional value of rice. However, nutritionists have linked unbalanced consumption of rice to diseases such as pellagra and other diseases of malnutrition. Nevertheless, rice remains one of the most common and most important foods for the global population, times, cultures, and geographical spaces. The earliest consumption and cultivation of rice has been traced to the year 2500 B.C., (Chang, 2001). Historians have explored multiple sources of evidence, which show that rice was first cultivated and consumed in China. It was from China that this food commodity found its ways to places such as Sri Lanka and India (Rost, 1997). It remains imprecise as to the exact nature of influence and contacts that contributed to the spread of Rice from its original land to other geographical regions of the world.  

Dark Energy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dark Energy - Essay Example Ideally, it is the volume of space that consists intrinsic basic energy. It is equivalent to vacuum energy in reality since it is the energy density of unfilled vacuum. The general relativity theory denotes that the energy will have an effect on gravity (Wang 76). Cosmological constant is characterized by negative pressure that is equivalent to its energy density. As such, it causes acceleration on the expansion of the universe. Quintessence refers to the hypothetical form of energy that can be attractive or repulsive. It is a scalar field that has its equation defined by the ratio of pressure to its density. Attraction or repulsion of this energy is dependent on the kinetic to potential energy ratio (Morrey Bsc & Morrey 112). Quintessence serves to solve part of the problems accruing from cosmological constant. Unlike cosmological constant, quintessence is a dynamic equation that varies with time. In addition, it differs from cosmological constant from the fact that it forecasts a slower increase in rate of expansion of the universe. The third alternative idea stems from the string theory. String theory stipulates that an atom’s elementary particles are dimensional swinging lines (Amendola and Tsujikawa 64). It is a quantum theory of gravity. The theory comprises configurations that define all observed basic forces and matter, but have zero cosmological constant. The methods employed in determine the above ideas are geometry of space, exploding stars and the late- time integrated Sachs- Wolfe effect (Amendola andTsujikawa 340). Exploding stars is ideally the supernovae. Type la supernovae offer a standard candle for the measurement of the distance to galaxies that are much far away. It combines the information with redshift; a measure for the speed at which galaxy recedes. Conclusively, astronomers have inference that there is a factor that is contributing to the increased velocity of the recession of galaxies. The geometry

The effectiveness of dowel bars in concrete pavements Literature review

The effectiveness of dowel bars in concrete pavements - Literature review Example Dowel bars are popularly used in load transfer system over joints. This research paper critical examines various aspects of dowel bars from the theory behind these bars to how they ought to their proper placement in the joints. Stresses in Concrete Pavement A concrete pavement is generally referred to as a rigid pavement. It is multilayered with layers being placed on top of each. The strength of the layers decreases downwards. Figure 1 (Pavement Analysis and Design n.d) The major factors that subject concrete pavements to stresses are â€Å"the action of traffic wheel loads, the expansion and contraction of the concrete due to temperature changes, yielding of the subbase or subgrade supporting the concrete pavement, and volumetric changes† (Garber & Hoel 2009, p. 1085). In studying how concrete pavements are subjected to stresses, some basic assumptions have to be made. 1. Concrete pavement slabs are viewed as unreinforced concrete beams. This therefore means that even if the re is some reinforcement made, for instance by including steel, it is ignored (Garber & Hoel 2009, p. 1085). 2. Flexural and direct tensile stresses significantly contribute to creation of transverse and longitudinal cracks (Garber & Hoel 2009, p. 1085). 3. The subbase or subgrade layer below the concrete pavement is an elastic material. ... Temperature changes lead to expansion and contraction of concrete pavement and this may in turn subject concrete pavement to tensile and compressive stresses. Tensile and compressive stresses will depend on how wide the range of change in temperature is (Garber & Hoel 2009, p. 1085). If the range of the temperature between the top and the bottom of a concrete pavement is big enough then curling is likely to take place. If the upper surface has a higher temperature than the lower surface then the then a compressive stress at the upper surface will be experienced while the lower surface experiences tensile stress. The reverse occurs when there is change in temperature such that the top is cooler than the bottom of the concrete pavement. Freeze-thaw damage can also result to stressing concrete pavements. This often occurs when sedimentary aggregate is used and is often exposed to freeze-thaw cycles. These cycles often lead to durability cracking (Pierce 2009 p. 20). Wheel load stresses It has been noted that traffic wheel loads induce flexural stresses. Flexural stresses induced in this manner are dependent on the position of the line of action of the load, simply the location of the wheels, with respect to the pavement edge. Joint seal damage stresses Damages which may occur at the joints often exposes concrete pavement to a lot of stresses. The five damages which are likely to occur at the joints are: Adhesive failure when joint seal material debonds from the concrete surface; cohesive failure which may occur when the joint sealant material splits within the sealant; extrusion occurs when the joint sealant is pushed or pulled out of the joint due to slab movement and/or traffic; oxidation occurs due to exposure to the elements; and infiltration occurs when

Primate Observations Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Primate Observations - Research Paper Example Different species of the order primates responded differently to their respective subsequent environments thereby resulting in unique adaptive features thereby becoming completely different animals. Humans are the most civilized of the primates and possess distinct features from the rest of the non-human primates such as monkeys, chimpanzees, and apes among others. However, some of the non-human primates possess characteristics similar to those of humans thereby corroborating the common ancestry theory and the theory of evolution all of which seek to explain the origin of the different animals (Waal and Frans 55). Apes are arguably the largest arboreal animals implying that they are the largest mammals living in trees. The primates are of the biological family known as Hominoidea of the family Homo thereby making them very closely related to humans. They therefore have numerous personality traits similar to those exhibited by humans. The primates are herbivores and natives of Africa and East Asia owing to the existence of large tropical services that provided adequate habitation. Currently, they live in different parts of the world owing to animal transportation by humans and their own migrations as conflict between them and humans heighten. However, some of the apes can eat other animals a feature that quantifies the primates as being both carnivores and herbivores. Monkeys on the other hand are a category of primates of the family cacopithecidae. Just as any other primate, they are natives of Africa and parts of East Asia and are of numerous species. The deferment species possess different features with a majority of the species being arboreal while others leave on the ground. Monkeys have tails that they use frequently in their daily survival activities. They are smaller than any other primate is and live in groups consisting of both males and females. Apes and monkeys as observed during the tour of the zoo exhibit a number of traits similar to those of huma ns while others are strange and therefore set them apart from the rest of human primates. Their different characteristics are results of their different habitats occurrences that validate the evolution theory and its elated adaptations. Apes and monkeys live in groups, they are social animals a feature that distinct the primates from the rest of other mammals. The animals are social and therefore live in societies consisting of males, females, and children. In their societies, the adults protect the young ones and provide them with food. This is typical of humans who are also very social and coexist peacefully with one another despite the constant competition for food among other resources. Additionally, humans show affection and protection to their children. The monkeys and apes showed great protection to their babies often carrying them below their bellies. In case they released their babies, the mothers ensured that the company was safe and only among other monkeys or apes. This way, the other apes teased the baby and played with it before sharing their meals with it. Additionally, the apes and the monkey showed affection to the old amongst them. While they fought for the food thrown at them, they never scrambled for those that fell close to the old. This is synonymous to human who are the most civilized primates and show great affection to both their old and the young. The theory of evolution and the evolution of humans assert that before inventing the upright position, humans just like the rest of the non-human primates carried their babies on their underbellies (Kinzey 34). This position proved convenient for walking on the four feet and for handling both food and tools. The primates at the zoo corroborated this claim. With their babies in

Discussion 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discussion 1 - Essay Example The source of the issue is then used as a means to determine the possible solutions. This may include a wide range of techniques like job or task analysis (Castagnolo, 2007). Here the output from this phase generally provides the instructional goals and these are used as a start for the design phase. b) Design: This stage is based of the analysis stage and here this stage involves the development of the plans to reach the instructional goals. This stage involves a number of activities like the selection of delivery systems, learning analysis, population description and also listing out of the objectives. c) Develop: The third phase of the model is the development stage. Here the focus is on development of the instructions and also use of various media and documentation to help develop the plans. This stage involves activities like generation of the lesson plans and also lesson materials. d) Implement: This stage as the name suggests is the actual delivery of the instructions. Several activities can be involved here including different mediums of instructions like classroom learning, lab based or computer based learning. e) Evaluation: Finally the last stage of the model is the evaluation stage. Here this occurs among all the phases and even between phases. This stage can be divided into two main phases. Formative Evaluation and Summative Evaluation. The first form is done during the ongoing and between phases, while the summative evaluation occurs during the finals element of the implementation. The activities that are included here are the decision making processes like whether or not the instructional package should be bought, if it should be continued or discontinued. The most essential stage among the above mentioned stages is the analysis and the evaluation stages. The analysis stage is the most essential as it brings out the overall scope and goals and also brings out the changes needed. Any

Investment report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Investment report - Research Paper Example The second paragraph discusses the short grid of the company’s stock. It analyses the movement of the stock in the previous years, and further concludes that the BEST BUY stock had been decelerating and continues to predict that there will be further deceleration in the next coming years due to poor sales made during the holiday and its poor marketing strategies. The third paragraph discusses the valuation of the stock of the company. The company’s stock had been decelerating in the previous years and it further shows that will continue decelerating further in the next year and therefore the best decision is to short the BEST BUY stock. The fourth paragraph analyses the management ability which shows that the management had been arrogant in promoting the company’s products. They did not use the internet which most of its competitors used to sale to the customer; this resulted into poor sales and lowered the company’s revenue. The fifth paragraph discusses the sentiments based on the company’s balance sheet. The company’s balance sheet reveals that the assets of the company are inadequate to pay off the companies obligations, and this may put the company at a greater risk. The sixth paragraph analyses the fundamentals based on the company’s balance sheet. Lastly, it discusses the chart best on the EE charts of the Bloomberg and makes a conclusion to short BEST BUY STOCK. This report shows the discussions of the investment project of short BEST BUYs stock. The analysis discusses the reasons based on the short grid, valuation, management, fundamentals, sentiments and charts of the company. The investment on the short BEST BUY stock for the next year may be the best investment decision according to the analysis based on the streetwise-Bloomberg analyst recommendation function (ANR) and the earnings estimates (EE) charts. The company had good growth in the previous years, but due to unmet forecast on its holiday

Cable Companies as a Monopoly Research Proposal

Cable Companies as a Monopoly - Research Proposal Example The paper will draw on previously published reports that address the topic. These reports and articles will help define what a monopoly is as well as determining the present status of the cable companies. The paper will define the various forms of monopoly and report on current trends and legislation that affect the cable television industry. It will, when appropriate, put the issue into a historical context to determine if the industry is moving towards a greater or lesser monopolistic hold. The paper will be written with the premise that a monopoly does not exist in the cable television market. It will present evidence of this point of view, while remaining open for the presentation of opposing viewpoints. It will conclude by presenting a synopsis of the data and drawing a conclusion. In the face of rising cable bills and falling levels of service it is tempting to seek out a culprit and point to the cable company that has a seeming monopoly on the delivery of television viewing and broadband delivery. It is reasonable to believe that since we have one cable coming into the house and only have the choice of one content provider that a monopoly exists and we are left without any consumer selection. However, that anecdotal information alone would not necessarily qualify the cable company as a monopoly. There is the bidding process that takes place that determines the provider to consider. There are also suitable substitutes available that may limit the use of the word 'monopoly' when applied to television and broadband. The cable television companies no longer have a monopolistic hold on television delivery, as they have been subjected to competition from new technologies and deregulation. When we speak of a monopoly, the classic vision is the company that has a total market share and there are no competitors and no substitute products. The word is often used in a negative context as monopolies have historically had the ability to raise prices above the point that a competitive market would allow. As an example, private railroads in the past were able to act with monopolistic characteristics, as there was no competition from other transportation means. However, monopolies may also be the result of the economics of scale. If the fixed costs or startup costs are of a value that prevents others from entry, it may form a natural monopoly, where one company is able to produce and sell the service at a lower cost that having two or more companies competing for the same market share. A monopoly may also exist if there are simply no competitors that wish to enter the market, but the company does not act like a monopoly in the distribution of its services or the pricing of its goods. In addition, there is a difference between a regulated industry and a monopoly. According to Bollick (1984), "because of structural conditions that exist in certain industries, competition between firms cannot endure; and whenever these conditions exist, it is inevitable that only one firm will survive. Thus, regulation is necessary to dilute the ill-effects of the monopoly". For the purposes of this paper, a company will be considered to be a monopoly when it willfully acts to eliminate competition through its business practices and practices monopolistic pricing policies. Cable

Canon Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Canon Case Study - Essay Example As going to be discussed below, it can be noted that Canon employs various strategies and has to a greater extent managed to meet the strategic challenges and changes as a result of the key success story in its operation. However, in view of the above explanations, it can be noted that Canon instead has been successful in managing its strategies by virtue of embarking on an open approach in formulation of strategic plans rather than being imposed by the top management. Its strategies are influenced and driven by the strategic vision of Canon’s senior and other managers. This strategy is very flexible in that it promotes an open door policy where views from other equally important decision makers are taken into consideration towards the attainment of the overall organisational goals. In most cases, strategic planning is viewed as bureaucratic in nature where it is often regarded as a preserve for the top management to impose their views and vision about the company on the other work mates. Canon’s policy is flexible and open to accept ideas from other people within the organisation. Through technological differentiation, Canon has managed to grow from strength to strength to catch Xerox which had been a world leader in the photocopying market since the 1950s. They have managed their strategic challenges as well as changes by developing technology that was completely different from Xerox and this offered new features which were not very common by then which gave them the competitive advantage against this rival competitor. Technology is dynamic and is expected to change constantly hence taking into account these changes is one guaranteed way of trying to keep up pace with the new developments in the market which will also ultimately impact positively on any business. Another strategy that was used by Canon was to target the small photocopier niche markets which

Globalization Study Greece Economic Crisis Essay Example for Free

Globalization Study Greece Economic Crisis Essay However, besides Greece, there are other European countries also belonging to European Union; face a similar problem, such as Portugal, Ireland, Italy and Spain. Therefore, Greece’s debt crisis also triggers a European crisis. As the three companies lowered Greece’s credit rating the cost of their debt was on an upward trend. Consequently, Greece initiated an austerity program, the austerity measure resulted mass demonstrations. Background It all started in 2001, when Greece joined the European Union, Greece’s deficit at the time was higher than 3%, the standard of European Union. An American company named Goldman Sachs â€Å"helped Greek government to mask the true extent of its deficit with the help of a derivatives deal that legally circumvented the EU Maastricht deficit rules. At some point the so-called cross currency swaps will mature, and swell the countrys already bloated deficit. †(http://translate. google. com/? sl=en#en/zh-CN/) In comparison to other EU countries, Greece’s economic situation was relatively weak. Tourism being the main source of income for Greece was affected by the global economic crisis in 2007 which reduced the number of tourists form all over the world. This had a strong impact on Greece, as their imports were higher than exports; it caused the outflow of capital. Other factors that added to their crisis were high government spending, tax evasion and corruption. The bailout from European Union European Union and IMF provide 110bn Euros for the first bailout and 130bn Euros for the second bailout to help Greek government pay its creditors. At the same time, the vast majority of Greece’s private-sector creditors agreed to wipe off some of the debts, and also agreed to lower the present interest but this was not enough for Greece. Consequence of Greece’s economy -Austerity measure Increase of taxes, decrease wages What should Greece do in order to change its situation? Greece should implement budget cuts, higher taxes, improve labor market, lower pension reform. What can European Union do in order to protect Eurozone ST-GREEK : Similar to ST-stock (special treatment stock is a stock continues to have a loss for three years and has a risk to leave stock market) For example, European Union can give Greece some special treatment such as: 5% of financial deficits and fewer than 90% of public debt to gross domestic product; change the name of Greece in EU to ST-Greek; Audit Greece’s expenditure twice a year. European Union can also do same thing to Portugal, Italy, Ireland ; Spain. Hidden International Competition. The speed development of capitalist economies after World War 2 resulted between control and anti-control of America and Europe. The frequent trade between European countries helped economic union. U. S and Soviet Union’s situation had threatened the development of European countries. It was impossible for any single country to deal with that kind of threat, unless they stay together. That’s why the EU was formed. It was not a big deal for America at first, until EU had mentioned Eurozone. It suffered a drastic disagreement from London’s financial hub as it threatened the position of the U. S dollar. To split EU they supported the eastward enlargement of EU. When Germany and France succeeded, they already lost the advantage of EU. There’s a big economic difference between east Europe and west Europe and they were not trading frequently. If wolves stare at the most weak sheep, the sheep’s result is certain. Surely, wolves can not be satisfied for just one sheep, they wanted to eat all of the sheep, but a smart wolf would give sheep a chance to breed. After Greece, Portugal, Italy, Ireland and Spain may have risk of being eaten by the wolf. So, France and Germany face a difficult problem, if they help Greece, their citizens are not happy and the countries they help are not grateful for their bailout, they keep asking for more. If they don’t help those countries, they will leave EU subsequently making EU weaker. So, we can fairly say that it is the main purpose of London’s financial hub to make the dollar’s situation safe now as it will be a long time before EU can challenge the US dollar. In my opinion, every great change in this world is controlled by the super powers, to become more powerful they make other countries weak. After Japan, Southeast Asia and Europe, who will be next? The wolf will find different ways to weaken other countries in order to empower themselves. I think the simplest way is to observe what wolf does next. Further global implication and specifically Canada â€Å"Canada and Greece have been enjoying good trade relations for many years. Bilateral merchandise trade reached $256. 3 million in 2011. Canadian exports totaled $88. million, led by furs, vegetables and pharmaceutical products to Greece. Canadian imports from Greece totaled $168. 2 million in 2011, led by preserved food, fats and oil (mainly olive oil) and articles of iron and steel. † (http://www. canadainternational. gc. ca/greece-grece/bilateral_relations_bilaterales/index. aspx? lang=eng) Greece have to control their imports in order to pay for the debt, so their may decrease the import of Bilateral merchandise and furs, vegetables and pharmaceutical from Canada. It will have adverse effect on Canadian economy. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Greek_government-debt_crisis

Rockin Beats Essay Example for Free

Rockin Beats Essay Rockin Beats is a music store which has two branches located in the United Arab Emirates. One branch is located in Sharjah and the other in Dubai. The Rockin Beats store in Dubai offers: * Latest titles in pop, rock and dance * The expanding collection offers over 1000 CDs including live versions * CDs are digitally re-mastered for the best sound * Reasonable prices and special offers Rockin Beats has a total staff of 19 who are constantly working to provide the best service. The staff of 19 consists of 6 shop assistants, 1 sales manger, 3 sales staff, 1 accountant and 1 assistant accountant, 1 sound engineer, 1 purchasing manager, 3 cashiers, 1 storekeeper, 1 secretary and the chairman Mr Jason Smith. Current System In order to investigate the problem with the current system there had to be some research done, which involved interviewing the chairman, Mr Smith and the customers. Mr Smith, aged 42 has lot of experience in the trade and is constantly trying to make the store more profitable. His main concern seems to be the inefficiency of the system as its a manual system. In order to increase the efficiency, the current system will have to be automated. At present, shop assistants are concentrating more on there manual work rather than giving time for customers. An automated system will create friendly customer service and increase the efficiency there by making Rockin Beats a more profitable organisation. In the current system, when a CD arrives to the store the name of the CD, album name and price are noted down on a sheet and placed in alphabetical order in a filing cabinet, which is placed in the store. When a customer buys a CD, an invoice with the price and album ID, handwritten by the cashier is given to the customer. After the cashier has about ten invoices, the invoices are sent through a shop assistant to the accounts department which takes about 10 minutes. An accountant searches for the sales file in the filing cabinet and writes down the sold CDs and places the file back in the sales cabinet. The invoices are then passed on to the store keeper who ticks off the CDs sold on the stock control file and then removes the CDs from the filing cabinet in the store. Copies of the invoices are stored in another filing cabinet in alphabetical order of the album name. The store keeper has to constantly refer to the stock control file in order to check that the CDs are available. When the stocks become low the store keeper calls Mega Star (the local music distributor) and places an order. If the a customer wants a particular CD and asks a shop assistant to check whether its available, he or she will have to refer to the filing cabinet to check if the CD wanted is available. Communications between the two branches are made using the telephone, fax or post. By the end of each month the sales and cost are calculated manually using a calculator. These calculations are then checked by another accountant to make sure that the figures are correct. In order to check the effectiveness of this system the customers were interviewed in order to obtain their opinions. Fifty questionnaires with six questions on the important factors of the music store were randomly given out to the customers entering the store. The results from this questionnaire are shown below: For Question 1 What do you think of our service provided? Excellent Good Need Improvements The pie chart above shows that 74% of the people thought that the store needed improvements. From question 2 on the questionnaire, What improvements would you like to see?, the customers wanted the staff to be quick in searching for CDs, wanted a service where the CDs not available could be ordered and more shop assistants to offer help. Question 3, What do you think about the time taken at the cashier? Good Needs to be faster Question 4 What do you think about the location of the store? Easily accessible Difficult to access Question 5 was If you chose difficult to access, where would your preferred location be? For this question Dubai was the preferred location to the customers as 44 customers (88%) thought that the store was easily accessible. The last question was about the parking facility, What do you think about the parking at the store? Good Need more spaces The bar chart above shows that 46 customers (92%) think that the parking facilities are good. So this factor will not have to be considered as the customers are pleased with it. The results from the questionnaire show that a greater number of people want the check out process to be quicker. This means that the new system should contain a faster check out process, faster search facilities and the service of ordering music. The location of the store and parking facilities are fine according to the customers. The current system seems to contain a great deal of problems, which are: * Prone to errors as there are lot of human involvements * Information is stored in filing cabinets, making queries difficult * Processes are very time consuming and inefficient * Calculations have to be double-checked * Difficult to keep back up copies * Filing cabinets can get unorganised leading to errors and wastage of time Data Flow of the current system The hardware in the current system is a calculator, a typewriter and filing cabinets. These are very old and inefficient types of hardware used for processing and storing information. This system needs to be computerised in order to make it efficient and organised. A database can be used to create a system which is easy to understand, which means the staff wouldnt require much training, a basic knowledge in computers would be enough. Carrying out tasks on the data stored in the database would be easier and quicker. The system could also be made more secure by adding a password. Back up copies of the data can be stored in case the system crashes. Computerising the system will also mean that communications between the two branches and Mega Star (the local music distributor) will be much faster due to the use of the Internet. Methods such as E-mail, internet telephony and video-conferencing can be used to communicate. There are a few disadvantages in computerising the system as follows: * The initial cost of setting up the system will be high * Use of the internet will make the system insecure as hackers can get into areas with sensitive data * Danger of virus spreading throughout the whole organisation. * Elimination of certain jobs. The advantages of computerising the system are far greater than the disadvantages, which means that a certain tasks will have to be performed on the system, which are: 1. Enter all data in filing cabinets into the database. E.g. Album name, artist, genre, year, etc. 2. Create a query to find a particular CD. 3. Create forms for tables so that data can be entered easily. 4. Create an invoice so that the cashiers only have to enter certain information such as album ID, album name, artist/band and price. 5. Create a form for customer comments. E.g. if a customer wants a particular CD, he or she can place an order through this form. 6. Making the system simple and user friendly so that a person with a moderate knowledge of IT can use it. The program which I will use to create the database and perform the tasks is Microsoft Access. This database will be created for users with moderate skills. The users should be able to carry out queries, add entries and making sure that the system is up-to-date. The shop assistants should check the customer comments daily in order to get the required CDs in time for the customers. When the requested CDs have arrived, the entries for those CDs in the customer comments must be deleted and new entries should be made in the tables. The storekeeper must check the invoices daily to make sure that stocks are available. When using Microsoft Access the computers must have certain features to run the program efficiently. These are the hardware specifications: * Pentium III, 700 MHz terminals (each with 128 MB RAM) * Flat screen monitors for use with the store by shop assistants and cashiers. * Normal Monitors for use in departments. * Main server (with 100 GB) networks all the terminals so that they can access the database. * Keyboards * Mouse * 3.5 floppy drives * CD-ROM drives * Printers used for printing receipts and used by other departments such as the accounts department for keeping hardcopies of information. * Modems used for connecting to the internet to get information on CDs. The software requirements are: * MS Access 2002 * Windows XP Performance Criteria In order to maintain the efficiency and standard of Rockin Beats, certain procedures have to be followed when performing tasks: * All documents of the company must contain the letterhead, address, telephone number and date. * Password must be alphanumeric. This reduces the chances of being hacked. * The password must be changed every month to reduce the risk of hacking. * The customer comments form must be checked everyday in order to get the music wanted by the customer as soon as possible. * The anti-virus software must be up dated every two months to reduce the risk of new viruses entering. * When downloading information or software from the internet the 2 stand alone computers must be used. If a virus enters only the computer being used will be damaged, not the entire network. * The system must be backed up every month, in case of a system failure and information is lost. * Database must be updated as soon as new CDs arrive. * On the table Other Information on CDs, in the field Year the validation rule must be changed in the month of December of each year. E.g. the current validation rule is that data entered must be Between 1960 And 2002. In December this year it should be changed to Between 1960 And 2003.

Self Determination Theory | Analyis

Self Determination Theory | Analyis Quality effective coaching is about interdisciplinary knowledge. As well as the ability to recognise implicit and explicit decision making. Coaching is essentially about problem solving, a good coach uses a procedural and declarative knowledge compilation to help towards problem solving. A good example of this would be the Kolbs Experimental Cycle (1984). It shows a continuous flow of development, including; reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation, active experimentation and concrete experience. This implies that learning is a process where knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Within this essay I will be discussing an understanding of two different coaching science theories and how they can be applied to real coaching experiences. I will be critiquing both theories, showing how I can improve in aspects of the theory in my coaching and how they both incorporate reflective practice. Self determination theory (SDT) represents a broad framework for the study of human motivation and personality. The theory is based on the premise that individuals pursue self determined goals to satisfy their basic psychological needs to independently solve problems, interact socially, and overcome tasks. According to SDT, a concept that could explain the relationship between participants motivation and their experiences in exercise is due to the level to which their behaviours are autonomous. Autonomous is when a task is; fully volitional, freely pursued, and wholly endorsed by the person. When participants exercise experiences are controlled, i.e. pursued and directed by external or internal forces, it leaves participants feeling like they have very little or no choice. Research clearly supports the idea that individuals have different types of motivation, ranging from high (autonomous) to low (controlled) levels of self determination. Participants can be intrinsically motivated, when they engage in learning activities for their own benefit, and extrinsically motivated when they engage in activities for influential reasons. Intrinsic motivation represents the model of self determination, because a person is motivated to act for the fun or challenge entailed in the behaviour rather than because of external factors, such as pressures or rewards. In contrast extrinsic motivation embraces a variety of behavioural factors that vary in their level of self determination. Intrinsic and indentified regulations are self determined, whereas external and introjected regulations are non self determined forms of motivation (Tessier et al, 2010). Motivational characteristics are influential in shaping participants desire to persist in sport or to discontinue their sport participation. Self determination theory suggests adolescents are more likely to follow peer leaders who afford them autonomy to choose, an avenue for relatedness with the leader and other members of their group, and a sense of competence for the task they are doing (Ward et al, 2010). Although psychological and physical benefits can be obtained from participation in competitive sport (Mandigo and Holt, 2000), it can also lead to damaged self esteem and mood disturbances, particularly when youths experience performance pressure from close adults (Reeve and Deci, 1996). For these reasons, the influence of coaches and parents on youth participants sporting experiences is an issue of high importance in sport psychology. There is considerable research on the interaction of parents and coaches with sport participants. For example, parental pressure predicted decreased enjoyment in basketball (Brustad, 1988), and parental and coach positive emotional involvement predicted the enjoyment in football (Ommun dsen and Vaglum, 1991). Also, having an autocratic coach who provided little feedback decreased involvement and intrinsic motivation. Self determination theory proposes that humans have three fundamental needs that must be satisfied in the social context. The first need is to feel autonomous in performing an activity. Autonomy involves being volitional and acting in such a way as to represent your integrated sense of self (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Autonomy support can be enhanced by allowing participants within an environment to choose the things that they enjoy and really want to do. The second need is to perceive relatedness with others in the community of involvement. By working hard as or within a group, participants can achieve a sense of team bonding, which can in turn lead to strong friendships. A third fundamental need is to perceive competence in relation to the activity. Competence is widely regarded as fundamental to the expression of motivation in the sport context (Reinboth and Duda, 2006). Youth sport literature suggests that experiencing competence in sports is strongly related to being accepted by a pe er group and having positive peer relationships within a group (Weiss and Duncan, 1992). Results from Vazou, et al (2005) even suggested that youths perception of their own competence was related to the level of support and acceptance by peers in the group. This developmental process is about gaining a sense of accomplishment and believing in yourself to complete a task to the best of your ability. This can lead to motivational outcomes in self determination theory. However, this does not account for learning acquisition of new skills, like contextual interference theory. One challenge that many coaches encounter is how to best structure practice schedules that will facilitate the development of skilful movements (Porter, Landin, Hebert, Baum, 2007). Contextual interference (CI) is a functional interference in a practice environment which affects the structure of the session to improve learning effectiveness. The stage of learner development will directly affect the structure of the practice session. It is well established that interference during practice has substantial influence on skill learning (Guadagnoli and Lee, 2004). The contextual interference effect acknowledges that learning is enhanced when interference during practice is high, such as when participants practice multiple tasks in a random order. Results from studies investigating the effects of practice order on motor learning typically show that a random practice order enhances motor learning more when compared with that of a blocked practice order (Wright, Magnuson and Black, 2005). One way to control interference during practice of multiple tasks is to change the order in which the tasks are practiced. For example, a random practice order in which tasks are practiced in a quasi random order (i.e., 3-1-2, 1-2-3, 2-3-1), where each number represents a skill, is thought to introduce more interference than a blocked practice order in which each skill is practiced repeatedly prior to switching to the next skill (i.e., 1-1-1, 2-2-2, 3-3-3). Football, basketball, and volleyball are activities which require general strategies to be formed to cope with the unlimited variations of situations which arise within the game. These open skilled games require variety in training for cognitive generalization to occur, so that the participants can adapt to various unique competitive task demands. It is still important for athletes to experience a significant number of successful practices, whether for variable or specific skills, to achieve an eventual state of over learning (Chr istina, 1996). In a study by Porter and Saemi (2010), they showed that practicing with systematic increases in contextual interference for multiple days would perform better than equally skilled participants who practiced with traditional blocked and random scheduling. The participants practiced three different basketball related passes using either a blocked, random, or increasing contextual interference practice schedule. All participants practiced trials every day for five consecutive days. Participants completed an immediate retention test, and a 48 hr delayed retention test. The results of the immediate and delayed retention test showed that practicing with gradual increases in contextual interference resulted in superior performance compared to traditional blocked and random scheduling. These results were important because the 48 hr delay more accurately reflected a real world athletic environment. It is common for athletes to practice for multiple days in training, and then receive a one to two day break before a game. Therefore it is important to measure the learning of sport skills after one or two days without practice. The findings presented in this experiment suggest that coaches working with moderately skilled athletes can create effective learning environments by progressing from a blocked to a more random schedule during practice. The results further suggest that the benefits of an increasing contextual interference practice schedule can be observed when practice sessions are spaced over multiple days. One reason why a practice schedule that offers gradual increases in contextual interference may be beneficial is because it challenges learners at the appropriate level by creating an environment that becomes progressively more difficult as the athletes skill level improves (Porter and Saemi, 2010). The evidence for contextual interference is strong, when the skills practiced are dissimilar. However, when contextual interference is used, the performer actually spends less time working on any specific skill than if they were to use blocked practice (McMorris and Hale, 2006). The coach must determine how long to spend on any individual skill, this is completely reliant on the level and ability of the performer. Blocked practice may be more beneficial to an athlete wishing to fine tune a specific technique, which will require a lot more time spent practicing that skill technique, for example, a golf swing. On the other hand, for a beginner, the range of skill practices acquired during a contextual interference session may be more beneficial to them. This will allow them to practice a large variety of skills over a short space of time, possibly giving a better rate of retention long term. Both of these theories can be applied in a coaching setting to help participants learning and motivational needs. For a coach, the use of pedagogy and theory based practices are essential in developing a coaching session that is sufficient for the requirements of the participants. Each theory gives the coach a set of structure to the session, and allows the participants to get the most out of it. From personal experience of using both theories in real life practice, I can see that both have their advantages, although dependant on participants ability level and understanding of a specific sport. With regards to self determination theory, the coach can integrate forms of structure, autonomy support and involvement into a session using a variety of methods. Structure can be enhanced by using clear organisation and clearly stated procedures of participant expectation. Sessions should be challenging with maximum participation, allowing coaches to provide informative and timely feedback. F or example, positive and constructive feedback given throughout session to group and individuals encouraging work towards clear session goals, as long the feedback is given in an autonomy supportive manner. Autonomy support is given to the participants through explanation and provided rationale for the practice session, as well as encouragement of expression, choice and creativity for athletes. An example of this could be, avoiding controlling behaviours while coaching and acknowledging the participants feelings and perspectives on the session. The athletes should be allowed opportunities for independent work where they can use their initiative. Autonomy support can be enhanced by the use of student led activities, for example, student signalled starts; this encourages the participants to control how and when the session will progress. Involvement is provided by the relationship between coach and participants throughout the session, showing emotional support and a level of interest. Involvement can be improved within a session by expressing affection towards participants, learning their names and remaining within a close proximity to the athletes during the session. For example, this could be during refereeing by the coach or when giving positive feedback during the session. Self determination theory is a key aspect when trying to improve athletes motivation levels during practice. It does not however, affect the learning process and retention of skill acquisition like contextual interference theory does. When using contextual interference theory in real coaching practice, the coach must know the needs of the participants; this can be done through a needs analysis. According to the athletes sporting level, ability and environment, the session can then be constructed to include varied or random practice of skills. The level of contextual interference used is also determined by the coachs procedural and declarative knowledge on the subject. Although practicing under conditions of contextual interference does not always lead to immediate good performance, research suggests that it leads to better long term skill learning. It is also suggested that learning skills through contextual interference can work better if the skills are not too closely related biomechanically, or in a similar generalised motor program. By using a different array of skills, different motor pathways are being processed, facilitating better learning with a high level of contextual interference. It is usually traditional for coaches to begin the instruction process with blocked, constant practice of a single skill before progressing through drill practices towards random, variable practice conditions. A potential criticism of this approach is that coaches move too slowly through the development stage. According to traditional cognitive models of motor skill learning, such as Schmidts (1975) schema theory, variability in movement and context characteristics are essential to develop a more expansive and generalized motor program to cope with a variety of similar but different situations. The assumption is that when variability is introduced into the practice environment, the learner has to adapt the motor program differently from one trial to the next resulting in a more flexible and interchangeable movement schema (Schmidt and Lee, 1999). A low contextual interference practice schedule may involve practising one skill per session, or perhaps two separate skills, for example, shooting and passing in blocks of 20 30 minutes each (blocked practice). Higher levels of contextual interference would arise if a variety of skills, for example; shooting, passing and dribbling, were practised in a random manner throughout the session (random practice). In the most random practice schedule, a player never practises the same skill in consecutive tasks. The clear message is that to promote learning coaches should try to avoid repetitive, blocked practice by presenting a variety of skills within the same session. Both theories relate to the process of reflection, for coach and athlete. Reflection is a key aspect within learning development; it allows us to reflect on positive experiences to encourage constructive behaviour, as shown in the Gibbs reflective cycle (1988). Gibbs model is clear and precise allowing for description, analysis and evaluation of the experience helping the reflective practitioner to make sense of experiences and examine their practice. It also allows us to reflect on our negative experiences so that in future experiences we can control how to give ourselves the best opportunity for a positive outcome. Reflective thinking needs to be structured so that you can describe what happened to you in a given situation, come to some conclusions about the experiences and possibly decide how to act in dealing with future similar experiences.We learn from experience is a well known statement, but according to Dewey (1933) we dont learn from experience, instead we learn from reflec ting on experience. In order to increase my understanding of both of these theories, I intend to further use and improve in aspects of the theories during my coaching practice. From some of the research that I have done to complete this essay, I can already see areas of my coaching that can be improved upon. Some of these include, my ability to give positive, informative and timely feedback to participants, this will help autonomy support with the participants. I could also improve by knowing all of my athletes on a first name bases, this will help improve my relationship with the participants and increase my involvement with them, an area I feel I could improve on greatly. By increasing my declarative and procedural knowledge of each sport I feel as if I will be able to offer more in terms of opportunities for creativity and initiative within my sessions. All of these will help greatly improve motivational levels of my athletes which then in turn I hope will improve their performances. I have taken qui te a lot from STD theory, but I have also learned just as much from the contextual interference theory in relation to my coaching. This is especially true when I consider how I will be constructing all of my future practice sessions. By taking into account the sporting level and ability of my participants, as well as what skills I am considering introducing, my session will be structured appropriately with the correct level of contextual interference. I will be using a lot more varied and random practice within my sessions, especially for beginners and younger athletes, to help increases their long term retention of new skills. As a coach and a constant problem solver, I am continuously looking for ways in which I can improve my ability to coach at a high level. These scientific theories have helped improve my declarative knowledge of coaching in general, but I will be looking for further ways I can improve my overall performance as a coach.

Teaching the Philosophy of Science with Non-Scientific Examples Essay

Teaching the Philosophy of Science with Non-Scientific Examples ABSTRACT: This essay explores the benefits of utilizing non-scientific examples and analogies in teaching philosophy of science courses, or general introductory courses. These examples can help resolve two basic difficulties faced by most instructors, especially when teaching lower-level courses: first, they can prompt students to take an active interest in the class material, since the examples will involve aspects of the culture well-known to the students; second, these familiar, less-threatening examples will lessen the students' collective anxieties and open them up to learning the material more easily. To demonstrate this strategy of constructing and employing non-scientific examples, a lengthy analogy between musical styles and Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions is developed. Without a doubt, one of the most difficult tasks in teaching undergraduate philosophy courses is motivating the students to take an active interest in the abstract and complex issues normally presented. One obvious method of overcoming this dilemma is to provide numerous historical examples and analogies of the relevant philosophical problem, since concrete instances are frequently less complicated than general descriptions, articulate the main points more clearly, and have the added bonus of being more "personal" and relatable. Thus, if one were presenting, say, Imre Lakatos theory of scientific research programs, describing the conflict between the Ptolemaic and Copernican views would serve as an excellent backdrop for the introduction of Lakatos' ideas. Nevertheless, if the students are unfamiliar and/or bored by the kinds of examples employed, the strategy will, of course,... ...eme be introduced in the development section? // (rock) Can the song last for more than three minutes? 4) Techniques for answering questions (and standards of success): (class.) Yes, but as long as it doesn't undermine the recapitulation. // Yes, but don't expect much radio air play, or video exposure. 5) Exemplars (successful previous application of theory): (class.) a sonata form movement by one of the acknowledged master, such as Haydn, Mozart, etc. // a hit song by one of the great rock bands, such as Beatles, Rolling Stones, etc. 6) Incommensurability: 'theme' in classical sonata form is designed for maximum development capacity, and is (usually) in either tonic or dominant key // 'theme' in rock music is usually designed for maximum melodic capacity, must allow lyrics to be set to the theme, and may not strictly follow the tonic-dominant tonal scheme.

Fear And Loathing In Las Vegas Essay -- Film Movie Movies Films Las Ve

Fear And Loathing In Las Vegas The story begins abruptly, as we find our mock heroes out in the desert en route to the savvy resort of Las Vegas. The author uses a tense hitchhiker as a mode, or an excuse, for a flashback that exposes the plot. An uncertain character picked up in the middle of the desert who Raoul Duke, the main character, feels the need to explain things to, to help him rest easy. They had two bags of grass, seventy-five pellets of mescaline, five sheets of high-powered blotter acid, a salt shaker half-full of cocaine, and a whole galaxy of multicolored uppers, downers, screamers, laughers....Also a quart of tequila, a quart of rum, a case of Budweiser, a pint of raw either, and two dozen amyls. They were on assignment from a fashionable sporting magazine in New York, to cover the 4th Annual "Mint 400" dirt bike and dune buggy race. A savage journey to the heart of the American dream.Before one can review the motion picture "Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas", he must first research the full length novel of the same name. The book first appeared in 1971 in issues 95 and 96 of Rolling Stone magazine, published November 11th and 25th respectively. Although the two part series stated its author was someone called Raoul Duke, the story was copyrighted in 1971 by Hunter S. Thompson. Raoul Duke is actually the false name under which Hunter Thompson portrays himself as main character and narrator.The film was produced in the early goings of summer in 199...

The Use of Alcohol in Society Essay -- essays research papers

Throughout history, society has engaged in taking substances such as alcohol, that alter our physical being or our psychological state of mind. There are many experiences and pressures that force people to feel like they have to drink in order to cope with life, but for many alcohol is a part of everyday life, just like any other beverage. Alcohol is introduced to us in many ways, through our family, television, movies, and friends’. These â€Å"sociocultural variants are at least as important as physiological and psychological variants when we are trying to understand the interrelations of alcohol and human behavior†#. How we perceive drinking and continue drinking can be determined by the drinking habits we see, either by who we drink with, or the attitudes about drinking we learn over the years. The chances of people drinking in ways that can harm others and ultimately themselves can be seen by the correlation of educational lessons, cultural beliefs and the usage o f alcohol. Looking at all the possibilities, the complex question we must ask is why do people drink? Is it through their defiance of law, the accessibility of alcohol, teachings of others or the values set in place in their society? Every society has its own views on how the consumption of alcohol should be handled and regulated. Their differences create a trickle effect of how it is used, and is distinctive to that culture or society. Many cultures drinking habits go hand in hand with religion, and social customs. Drinking alcohol is in many cases a part of extensive learned tradition, where people pride themselves with their ability to hold their liquor. In countries where alcohol is part of the â€Å"norm†, the outcomes of drinking habits or the effects of alcohol are much different, â€Å"A population that drinks daily may have a high rate of cirrhosis and other medical problems but few accidents, fights, homicides, or other violent alcohol-associated conflicts; a population with predominantly binge drinking shows the opposite complex of drinking problems†#. It has been observed that cultures with rich traditions and acceptance of alcohol use tend to deal less with the typical alcohol related p roblems, compared to the cultures who treat alcohol as an escape or something that will make them better in the eyes of others. In these societies, like the U.S. alcohol hasn’t always been present and grown to be... ... 429 3.Varley, C. (1994). Life Issues-Alcoholism. New York: Marshal   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cavendish. 4.Rorabaugh, W.J. (1979). The Alcoholic Republic: An American   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press: 26 5.Levine, H.G. (1995).â€Å"The Good Creature of God and the Demon   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rum,† International Handbook on Alcohol and Culture.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Westport, CT: Greenwood Press: 115 6.Heath, 121 7.Heath, 436. Bibliography Claypool, J. (1981). Alcohol and You. New York: Franklin   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Watts- An Impact Book. Dolmetsch, P, and Mauricette, G. (Ed). (1987). Teens Talk   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  About   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alcohol and Alcoholism. New York: Dolphin Book. Heath, D.B. (1982).â€Å"Sociocultural Variants in Alcoholism,†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Encyclopedic Handbook of Alcoholism. New York: Gardner   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Press. Hornik, E.L. (1974). You and your Alcoholic Parent. New   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  York:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Association Press. Levine, H.G. (1995).â€Å"The Good Creature of God and the Demon   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rum,† International Handbook on Alcohol and Culture.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Rorabaugh, W.J. (1979). The Alcoholic Republic: An American   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press. Varley, C. (1994). Life Issues-Alcoholism. New York: Marshal   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cavendish.

Eastern Philosophy Essay

Eastern philosophy is the philosophies of the eastern continents. Many postmodern philosophers believe the only variant of Eastern and Western philosophy is that of Geographic’s however some scholars will disagree that it is not geographical but of natural language and investigated thinking. Eastern philosophy touches base with three traditions —Indian, Chinese and Persian philosophy—which are just as different from each other as they are from Western philosophy. Eastern religions have not spent as much time as western philosopher questioning the nature of God and his role in the creation of mankind. More recently philosophical schools are teaching both religious and philosophical concepts. East Asian Philosophy includes Confucianism, which is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia[1], Taoism which refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced Eastern Asia[2], Shinto which is the indigenous religion of Japan[3], Legalism which was one of the main philosophic currents during the Warring States Period[4], and Maoism, which is officially known as Mao Zedong Thought[5]. Indian philosophies were several traditions which included but limited to, Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, Sikh philosophy, Jainism and Carvaka (atheist school of thought with ancient roots in India). Indian philosophers live life by a philosophical custom. They believe this is the righteous way to best live their lives. Whether Indian schools believe in god or not, they all share the same perception of the truth through logical practices. West Asian Philosophies include to Babylonian philosophy, Iranian philosophy, Zoroastrianism, Islamic philosophy, and Sufi philosophy, however they can also be referred to as western philosophies. Babylonian philosophy dates back to the Mesopotamian era which demonstrated certain philosophies of life, in the forms of dialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose, and proverbs. [6] Iranian Philosophy is the same as Persian philosophy and is said to date back to the beginning of the science of philosophy. Zoroastrianism was philosophy influenced Indo-Iranian Philosophy. Islamic philosophy is summed up as the philosophical harmonization of Sufi philosophy reason and faith. Sufi philosophy involves a school of thought, in the form of manuals, dictations, poetry, and other written works as a means of thinking and meditation. In conclusion, Eastern philosophy is more about, the scientific aspect of philosophy without questioning the practically of it. All cultures involved have lived their lives by means of experience and by doing so they have gotten the best out of their lives. Even in religious culture, they do not question the beliefs but rather embrace them without fear of judgment and ridicule from others. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Postmodernist http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy#Classification ———————– [1] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Confucianism [2] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Taoism [3] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Shinto [4] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy) [5] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Maoism [6] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Eastern_philosophy.